The lives of Tanzanians are intimately connected to the environment, their survival and that of future generations depend on the harmonious relationship which natural elements. This is the concern of the people. However, the situation in Dar Es Salaam City is exacerbated by the high rate of urbanization coupled with the growth of spontaneous settlements of different categories. Dar es Salaam, the largest city in Tanzania, is growing fast as people move from the countryside to seek a better future. The vast majority of the city’s inhabitants are a result of rural-urban migration. The current population of Dar es Salaam City is estimated at 4.5m people. In summary, for the last decade, the city of Dar es Salaam has experienced what we term as “excessive urbanization
Understandably, cities, as a basis for economic activity and income generation, use many resources like water and energy, create pollution areas etc. Hence in addressing urban problems a number of specific environmental elements have to be considered. In the case of Dar es Salaam City, the major environmental problems include roadside air quality, solid waste, and water quality, among others.
Air Pollution
The major sources of air pollution for Dar es Salaam City are motor vehicles (believed to be the primary source affecting ambient air quality), industrial pollution and residential burning of fossil fuels. Automobile air pollution is a growing problem in Dar es Salaam City and as such it needs immediate attention before it goes out of control.
Inadequate urban planning is a significant driving force behind rising emission levels, because residential and commercial centers are often far apart, forcing mass movement of workers on a daily basis. Even in a private car, a bus, motorcycle or a taxi, the time we spend transporting ourselves in cities is getting longer, the costs are getting higher, while the air we breathe gets dirtier. Regardless of income or social status, the conditions under which we travel have become more and more difficult and, for some, absolutely intolerable.
However, the majority of people in the city depend on mode of motorized transport. Like many cities in the developing countries, Dar-es-Salaam City experiences a poor public transportation system. The dominant mode of public transport system is bus transport that accounts for about 60% of the modal split. The Dar-es-Salaam Regional Transport Licensing Authority (DRTLA) estimates that the number of privately owned buses known as daladala is between 6 000 and 7 500, while the actual number of daladalas registered for passenger traffic is about 6 000. However, the daladala buses are old and in poor physical condition. In Dar-es-Salaam many daladalas and other vehicles are not only second hand, but rather third-hand, fourth-hand or more, and are aged between 10 and 15 years old. The age of vehicles surely affects pollution levels and studies have shown that older vehicles account for a disproportionate share of air pollution in a given location. Studies have revealed that automobile exhaust gas coefficients for nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide are 10 times those of the USA. This is mainly attributed to low-energy efficiency of engines of most of the cars plying city roads. A badly maintained older vehicle can emit 100 times the pollutants of a properly maintained modern vehicle (ETC,1995).
The Government is in the process of introducing Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) to replace the existing poor and chaotic public city transport vehicles (dala-dalas) or reorganise them to operate more efficiently alongside BRT. The BRT vision is to embark on a modern public transport system at a reasonable cost to the users with quality and high-capacity buses that meet international service standards, reduce travelling time and that are environmentally friendly. The target is to make the BRT project operational by 2014. Hopefully, sustainable public transport in Dar es Salaam City will not be a myth but a reality.
Nearly all industrial processes, as well as the burning of fossil fuels, release particulates into the atmosphere. Much particulate matter is easily visible as smoke, soot, or dust; other particulate matter is not easily visible. Included with the particulates are materials such as airborne small particles of heavy metals, such as arsenic, copper, lead, and zinc, which are usually emitted from industrial facilities.
Solid Waste generation and disposal
The Dar es Salaam City, with solid waste generation amounting to 3100 Tonnes/ Day while the amount being properly collected and disposed off is 1200 Tonnes/ Day (39%). Makoba (2008, p. 14) points out a current population growth rate of 4.9% per annum for the city of Dar es Salaam. This means there is an increased population and undoubtedly increased rate of solid-waste generation and the Dar es Salaam City Council together with its three Municipalities is bound to come up with effective strategies for managing the solid wastes, for sustainable solution.
Dar-es-Salaam City at one stage, experienced mushrooming heaps of uncollected garbage scattered all over the city. Garbage collection has not been effective prompting health hazards to city residents. The Daily News Paper sometime back carried a story entitled, "Garbage Dumps Mushroom in Dar Streets": However, the situation is not as gloomy as that.
However, presently there some signs of improvements although generally Tanzania has no culture of sorting out solid waste before disposal. Solid waste is collected and transported by contracted private companies to the dumpsite .It should be noted that all dumpsites in the city generate a lot of fire/smoke which is an environmental hazard. The idea of introducing sanitary landfill is ever talked about but never implemented.
Water Pollution
Improper treatment and disposal of liquid wastes is the major contributor to urban area pollution. In Dar es Salaam, for example, less than 5% of the population is connected to a sewage system. In such areas raw sewage is discharged directly into the Indian Ocean without prior treatment. Where sewage system does not exist sewage is normally discharged treated or untreated in to water bodies . In many cases, such a situation leads to diseases in humans and destroys aquatic life.
Some settlements such as Vingunguti and Hananasif are located along the Msimbazi River which cuts across Dar-es-Salaam city from East to West dividing the city into two parts (North and South). The river's basin is mainly vegetated by mangrove swamps. The area is popular in Dar-es-Salaam because of the role it plays in the urban economy. Most of the fresh vegetables, i.e., mchicha (spinach), sold by street vendors in Dar-es-Salaam is grown here. Msimbazi River is also a source of domestic water for families which do not have access to piped water. Several industries located along Pugu Road industrial area discharge their waste materials into this basin. The situation is environmentally unacceptable.
Sand Mining
Sand mining is being undertaken within the Dar es Salaam City in areas not designated for such activities. This phenomenon has created conflicts between residents and city authorities and ultimately undermined principles of urban planning. It has created big holes which essentially affect the aesthetic features of the area. This activity has potentially exacerbated soil erosion and resulted into a loss of productive land.
Environmental Management
The Government passed the Environment Management Act of 2004 for effective and sustainable management of the environment. Hence, enforcing of special laws pertaining to environmental management are emphasized. Meaningful and effective environmental law must be clearly understood and treasured by the communities and individuals whom it is aimed. The legislation sets out standards and procedures, duties and limits, create obligations for all stakeholders, which will fit human activities and govern resources sustainably. It is believed with strong institutional framework which is well coordinated all the above environmental problems could be resolved.
Questions for Discussion
- To what extent are the environmental issues discussed in this paper present in other PIE cities?
- What immediate steps could all cities take in moving towards a sustainable “green economy and city” to protect and preserve the environment?
- How can we harness our collective creativity and our science and technology to make a difference in cities and ensure sustainable environmental management?
- To what extent has effective planning of our cities facilitated reduction of environmental pollution and reduced energy consumption?
- What should be the long-term structural objectives in progressing global sustainability?
Comments
What "Bright Green" ideas can we share?
Godfrey Kamukala has given us an excellent overview of environmental questions confronting Dar es Salaam. Many other cities face these challenges. The questions Godfrey poses are relevant to all the cities participating in PIE, and I hope we can respond to these questions in a productive dialogue.
One city that has a clear innovative agenda is Vancouver with its "Vancouver 2020: A Bright Green Future [2]" initiative. This Action Plan carries Vancouver's aspiration to become the world's "Greenest City" by 2020.
This exciting innovation arose in 2009 when the Mayor of Vancouver established a group of independent experts as the Greenest City Action Team (GCAT) to come up with a plan to achieve the 2020 aspiration. The team included well known environmentalists David Suzuki and David Boyd. The report of the team ("Vancouver 2020: A Bright Green Future") can be downloaded from their website [2], where other interesting papers are also located.
The report includes 10 long term goals which are being progressed. In addition, a "Quick Start" report was produced with 44 recommendations for early action. Two thirds of these are already being progressed.
The Greenest City aspiration is driving innovation. The report includes a range of suggestions for "Bright Green ideas". Vancouver's 6 public universities and colleges are collaborating with the city and each other in contributing to the Green City objectives. Students work on a number of Action Plan projects, and so are participants and stakeholders in Vancouver's aspiration.
Vancouver provides an interesting example of an entrepreneurial strategic collaborative approach to preserving the environmrent. There will be much value if all cities participating in PIE could share "Bright Green" ideas considered or implemented in the city, including grassroots innovations being taken in response to climate change. Few better areas now exist for innovative and creative ideas.
Godfrey Kamukala's Stimulus Paper
The Stimulus Paper by Godfrey Kamukala is an excellent exposé on the kind of issues, challenges and dilemmas Tanzania and her urban centres are facing. For the moment, let me focus my comments on the first of the issues he has raised, namely air pollution. This problem is intimately bound up with the many and ever-increasing number of vehicles that are introduced and plying the urban road network everyday—approximately ¾ of which are second-hand (even third-hand) imported ‘used’ cars. Not only are these polluting the air but also they are flooding an already congested urban road system and thereby seriously limiting the efficiency and carrying capacity of the roads and streets available. The region of Dar es Salaam currently has an estimated 100 or more car sale-depots and showrooms, each holding not less than an average of fifty cars waiting to enter the city roads anytime. The question here is: Given this situation, is there any hope of stemming or even controlling air pollution soon? On the other hand, it has now become fashion for the ‘urban rich’ to own three or four cars in their household yard—even when the users in the household are just a couple and even when such three or four cars cannot all be new, smoke-free cars.
A possible starting point towards arresting the fast-growing acquisitive impulse for multiple car owning would have been either (i) a bold deterrent government policy and law; (ii) a municipal bye-law regulating owning and driving of multiple cars; (iii) a government or municipal regulation on the currently excessive car importation by car dealers in an almost already ‘car-saturated’ urban environment; or (iv) a combination of all these strategies. Yet the question here might be: Who in the central government or within the municipal councils would be transparent and willing enough to deter or regulate this impulse? Because, such a step is possible only when those given the responsibility to control, regulate or act are not victim to the trap and are therefore upright, strong and authoritative enough to enforce the rules.
My hunch is that, even with an otherwise well-intended and innovative ‘Bus Road Transit (BRT)’ project that has been embarked upon, the solution will be of limited long-term effects if these impulses in society are allowed to prevail and no public policy is adopted and implemented in earnest. Not even with the more costly flyover scheme that is being contemplated. What do you think?
In the meanwhile, I look forward to downloading and reading the Vancouver 2020: A Bright Green Future report referred to by Peter Kearns, which, I believe, will have some creative ideas and lessons useful for our other cities, especially in the developing countries such as Tanzania. I am sure our municipal authorities (in Dar es Salaam, Arusha, Mwanza, Mbeya and others) stand to benefit from the report.
European Green Capitals
I recently gave the example of Vancouver's efforts to become the Greenest City [2] in the world by 2020 with an innovative Action Plan to guide development. Further examples of strategic city development to meet environmental challenges may be found from the European Green Capitals [3] selected by the EC.
The selected cities are: Stockholm (2010); Hamburg (2011), Vitoria Gadeiz (2012), and Nantes (2013). The EC web site for this program gives examples of the innovations being taken by these cities. While these include cutting CO2 emissions, energy savings etc. There are also some unusual innovations; for example Hamburg has set up a "Train of Ideas" with 7 carriages, each one looking at a different aspect of life in a green city such as mobility, energy, climate protection, nature, economy and consumption. The Train of Ideas has toured to other European cities such as Brussels and Nantes so that the ideas built into the train are being shared across Europe.
There will be value in sharing creative ideas being implemented in PIE cities to protect the environment.
Towards mitigating environmental hazards
Mr. Kamukala’s stimulus paper has commendably focussed on five critical issues—air pollution, solid waste generation and disposal, water pollution, sand mining, and environmental management. While I had a previous comment on air pollution insofar as this was connected to a number of problems including the traffic jams, an unregulated used-car importation, unlimited number of vehicles per user, etc, all which seem to impinge on the carbon emissions, traffic density and probably also on the rate of motor accidents. Urban regions are also faced by solid waste generation and disposal, water pollution, sand mining, as well as general environmental management, which can be said to be even more unique to urban environments, as Kamukala has indicated.
These challenges are not totally separated from some of the initial points mentioned earlier in connection with the emergence and expansion of urban regions, namely rural-urban mobility, unemployment, poverty, economic disparity, poor housing, poor urban transportation, and invasion of public ‘open spaces’ (Ishumi & Mwaikokesya, “The City of Dar es Salaam: A ‘Haven of Peace’ in Search of Ideas and Initiatives for Renewal and Change”, January 2011). These social-and-environmental problems are already a full plate for the municipal councils and authorities in Tanzania, especially in Dar es Salaam.
In a subsequent response to comments on that initial stimulus paper on Dar es Salaam, two modest propositions were made as part of a response to the growing urban problems in Dar, namely:
(1) The creation by the City Council of a multidisciplinary think-tank of planners, ecologist-environmentalists, sociologists/anthropologists, economists and technologists — who, as a team of specialists, would dedicate themselves to the details of their discipline’s concerns for corrective and innovative ideas for change and advancement in the urban aspect of their assigned city/municipal area of specialization – just as had reportedly been done for cities like Lusaka, Kitwe, Ndola, Luanshya, Mongu and Kabwe (Broken Hill), or even Harare in the past; and
(2) More particularly, creation of a cadre of urban social anthropologists within the employ of cities (or municipal councils), whose task would be studying and documenting issues and events within the city, preparing anthropological analyses of urban tendencies, events or crises for disciplined discussion and inputs into planning meetings. The suggestion here is to re-create and revitalize the job and role of professional anthropologists, whose studied social cases within the urban population would have that needed knowledge of urban dynamics necessary to informed planning decisions.
In fact, No. (2) above is just a subset of (1), only that this second matter is critically important when construed as an everyday feeder instrument of information to the rest on the everyday observations of the urban phenomena—ranging as they may from watching a mere group of unemployed youths seated in some corner or trooping up and down a particular street either looking for work or waiting to strike at a laden passer-by; to watching a neighbourhood area being turned into a shanty housing spot by individuals putting up unplanned grass-and-wattle or cardboard huts with no building permits and no semblance of an architectural clearance for context with land-use planning. The social anthropologist’s (or the urban sociologist’s) timely and pre-emptive report would surely save the municipality’s day and the town’s future from untimely conflicts with usurpers, environmental mass littering, unwarranted urban skirmishes, urban insecurity and overstretching the already limited municipal budget. What would others think of such a professional cadre of anthropological urban investigators-cum-planning intelligence?
I have had a chance of reading Vancouver 2020: A Bright Green Future, thanks to the hint by Peter Kearns. This is Vancouver’s own self-determined “action plan for becoming the world’s greenest city by 2020” and beyond. It makes marvellous reading, with lots of creative ideas and implementation plans “for the green economy, energy-efficient buildings, clean transportation, urban forest management, and so forth …through wide consultation with the community” (p.5) on each of the ten long-term goals and their success indicator measures. Indeed, the report provides useful lessons to would-be other cities, such as Dar es Salaam in Tanzania and other urban centres elsewhere, especially in the developing world. Where are we in Dar es Salaam, Arusha, Mwanza, Mbeya and elsewhere in Tanzania? Let’s take courage and aspire to higher levels of creative and anticipatory thinking. Perhaps, for Tanzanian cities, of more urgent interest might be Vancouver 2020’s Goals No. 3 (Promoting carbon-neutral building designs and construction), 4 (Preference for walking, cycling and public transit options over individualised urban car driving), 5 (Reduction of solid waste per capita going to landfill or incinerator), 8 (Raising standards of clean and safe drinking water) and 9 (Promotion of cleanest possible urban air and laying of air quality guidelines), at least to begin with. But, for all intents and purposes, actions towards these goals would have to be accompanied by visible public education/learning initiatives in various forms, such as published campaign leaflets, radio and televised talk series, public notices and related audio, video and/or documented literature.
Connecting preserving the environment in a learning city
Thank you Abel for your further contribution. I agree with the connections you make between the issues raised by Godfrey Kamukala and the broad questions raised by Mpoki and yourself in the Dar es Salaam stimulus paper. Your suggestion for a City Council multidisciplinary think tank of people from various relevant disciplines has considerable merit. The Vancouver Greenest City [2] Action Team is somewhat similar although with a different mix of scholars and people with practical responsibilities although with a different mix of scholars and people with practical experience and responsibilities. This team links through membership to organisations like the David Suzuki Foundation. Whichever model is more suitable for a city is likely to depend on the stage of development of environment thinking and development in a community.
While Vancouver has much to contribute, it is also worth looking at the web sites of Stockholm [4] and Hamburg [5], the European Green Capitals for 2010 and 2011. The Hamburg site is interesting in recognising that achieving Green City objectives is a learning process with the need for strategies to learn from best practice:
While of course I agree with this, I would add the rider that learning from best practice should not be confined to European cities but should involve insights gained from cities anywhere.
Worry about new integrated transport system
Environmental concerns are a major issue for Dar es Salaam, and it would be good to see what measures have been taken elsewhere in other (similar) cities. Transport pollution is a huge problem, as the blog says, but I do worry about the proposal to implement a new integrated transport system by 2014. I know that it is pressing, but the timeline is simply too fine, and I would worry that the there will end up being a cock-up because of the haste that actually makes things worse (if that can be imagined!).
How green is your city?
A study undertaken in 2009 of 30 major European cities developed a European Green City Index based on 30 underlying qualitative and quantitative indicators in eight categies. The study was sponsored by Siemens and developed by the Economic Intelligence Unit. The 8 cateegories for the indicators were CO2, energy, buildings, transport, water, waste and land use, air quality, and environmental governance.
The top performing cities in this assessment were: 1. Copenhagen 2. Stockholm 3. Oslo 4. Vienna 5. Amsterdam. It is interesting to compare this ranking with the findings of the 2010 ELLI European Lifelong Learning Indicators which had the top performing countries as 1. Denmark 2. Sweden 3. Netherlands 4. Finland. Earlier assessments of adult education in OECD countries gave much the same order with the Nordic countries as the top perfortmers while the ELLI report showed a close correlation between its findings and country results on the Global Competitivness Index, Consumer Health Index, and Corruption Index.
This relationship poses the question why the top performing lifelong learning counties have their main cities as the leaders in responding to global warming and environmental challenges. Does the strength of adult education and lifelong learning build a community more open to accept innovative approiaches to these challenges? This is an important question for the future of lifelong learning and strategies such as learning cities, so I welcome comments.
Is the wheel turning?
The Green Growth Leaders blog contains an item that asserts that since 2009 "the wheel of history has turned and it seems that cities and business are now the ones looking after the planet" In the case of cities, initiatives taken by Copenhagen, Stockholm, Hamburg, Nantes exemplify that can be achieved in an enlightened city with benefits to citizens.. If the wheel has turned in this direction, the question is now what can governments do?
‘Is the Wheel Turning’? A short answer to Peter Kearns’ question
Peter Kearns has just asked a short, straight question: Is the wheel turning? Let me dare one short answer to this, first by asking him for further clarification. My short answer is: The ‘wheel turning’ where (geographically – in the North, in the South, or across the globe)? Turning in terms of what particular concern or aspect of the environment? I am returning this question to him because, for a satisfactory answer to his question, one would need to have some specific point/s of reference (e.g. with respect to housing, forests, urban planning and renewal, pollution, budgeting and funds allocation, etc?) If he is referring to the kind of cities he has mentioned—Copenhagen, Stockholm, Hamburg, Nantes, or even Vancouver previously mentioned by him and upon which I had an opportunity to comment [see ‘Towards mitigating …’ above]—then the answer might probably be ‘Yes, it is turning’. ‘Yes’ because in the countries where these and several other Northern cities are located, there have been developed scientific norms, yardsticks and instruments used to measure progress towards achievement of targets set, as well as close public-private partnership and collaboration. With such scientific measures, it is easy to come to some conclusion that the wheel there (in the North) is turning; and that the wheel is turning towards the better, not retrogressively. Even though Peter is not quite specific as to which areas the question is referring say with respect to environment-related concerns in Copenhagen, in Stockholm, in Hamburg, or in Nantes, still the answer is mostly in the affirmative, given the information, reports and documentary evidence currently available (in hard and/or soft-copies) about them.
Notwithstanding the statement above, my major concern regarding the generally positive observation he seems to indicate is about cities in the ‘developing’ world—in eastern Africa, east-southern Africa, west Africa, some parts of Asia. For us to know whether in these geographical areas the wheel is turning or not, there is need for some comprehensive regional studies, on the environmental situation that there is or on the response or action being executed there to mitigate environmental challenges, generally or in particular critical areas before one can determine the kind of dialogue with governments on what they can do. This latter (viz. consultation with governments), I would suggest, can be done only after knowledge of what problems—general or specific—really exist in those countries or regions. Yet, this is what is currently lacking. Let’s take a simple example. Prof. Bruce Wilson took an initiative a few months ago to write and request the cities (municipal authorities) in some part of our developing region to participate in the PIE forum so as to share information and their experiences with the wider world. We have yet to know from Prof. Wilson if he has received any response or feedback from those cities and, if yes, if the feedback volunteered by them can be shared by everybody on the PIE forum. If his answer is ‘no’, then the PASCAL Observatory could and should be requested to provide leadership in this investigative endeavour.
Depending on the schedules or capacity of the Observatory, such studies or enquiries could be initiated and conducted by the Observatory’s own human-resource power with linkage or in liaison with some selected specialist groups in the targeted regions. Or else, selected ‘Terms of Reference’ could be given to some such specialists in the regions for conducting at least baseline studies. Results from such enquiries could then serve as a basis for communication with governments. I believe that the Observatory has resources or might kindly mobilise resources from interested and well-wishing organisations for conducting or sponsoring such studies. As we all know, ‘information is power’. Meaningful dialogue and decision-making—whether in the developed or in the developing economies—depends, essentially, on the availability of information! Yet, I very much doubt if the wheel is turning as much here in the developing world as can safely be assumed of the cities in the North. Here in eastern Africa, it is perhaps only in Rwanda where the wheel has reportedly begun turning, generally in the environment sector but also from the perspective of the science-technology-innovation drive, enough to stimulate change in society. The PIE forum would surely be anxious to share information on how the government there (in Rwanda) is providing leadership, partnership and facilitation towards positive change [and how, by cross-comparison, some of her neighbours are lagging behind].
Or, did I misconstrue your point, Peter? Please correct me if I’m wrong. Of course, with respect to the proposition I am trying to make in this note, I would appreciate receiving everybody’s reaction.
How does the wheel of history turn?
Thank you Abel for your very pertinent question and suggestion for action. My blog was picking up a comment by the Green Gth Leaders that it was cities and busuness (such as Copenhagen, Stockholm, Hamburg) which were taking the lead, rather than governments, in action to save the planet. This observation is of course very interesting to people such as ourselves interested in the learning city approach.
You are right in pointing to the gaps between leading northern cities such as these and the situation in developing countries in Africa, Asia, and elsewhere. The growth of urbanisation in these areas (with higher CO2 emissions) makes this an urgent issue. It may be thst the Rio+20 UNEP conference to be held in Rio next year as a 20 year follow up on the 1992 UN Conference on Sustainable development will provide good information on the issues in various parts of the world and some proposals for action. At this stage the UNEP has released a useful overview report on changes in the environment since the 1992 Rio Conference (Keeping Track of our Changing Environment) I found this an interesting read.
I agree with your suggestion for regional studies. How these might be undertaken, and by whom, is an open question. Can PIE contribute anything? I see the PIE contribution as exploring the interfaces between community and lifelong learning and environment strategies. It is surely no coincidence that the leading Green Cities are in countries with well developed lifelong learning policies and with a history in building a learning culture. If PIE is to make a contribution iin this way, it will be necessary to expand PIE membership so that we have a wider range of experience in exploring connections between learning, community building, and environment action. I would like to see more African, Asian etc cities participating in PIE to give us a platform to probe these critical issues. Do you agree this should be our first step? In the meantime, we should also monitor carefully what happens at Rio+20.
So how does historical change occur. From an agrarian socity to an industrial society? To a post-industrial society geared to a sustainable environment and economy?